OK, I didn't expect you to be able to follow all the methods. I just wanted to indicate we have standard ways of identifying these compounds, so that is how it would be done if the question were to arise today with an unknown sample.
But if what you are after is how these elements and compounds were identified historically, i.e. before modern day analytical chemistry was available, that's a lot trickier. I think I would have to try to explain that by examples. I gave you one example previously, of what Lavoiser deduced from burning phosphorus. He got a lot out of that:
- 2 components of air: azote and oxygene
- A compound (ash) in which phophorus was combined with oxygen (we would call that an oxide, though I'm unsure if the term existed in his time)
- this compound produced an acid when dissolved in water - a phosphorus acid.
Silver, gold and copper were obviously known in the Ancient world for coinage and jewellery and alloys of them. Zinc and tin were also known. Bronze is an alloy of copper with tin (e.g. the Bronze Age) and copper and zinc produced brass.
Mineral acids, including nitric acid, were known to Medieval alchemists (though not under their modern names): https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitric_acid
So someone in Lavoisier's time could dissolve a piece of silver in nitric acid and realise they had a compound - which today we call silver nitrate.
It's obviously not possible to trace all the stages by which all these elements, reactions and compounds gradually became characterised. It would take a book to do that and even then there would still be plenty of uncertainty about how many of the steps became known. The historical record is patchy and some of thee unknown alchemists guarded their knowledge. But I hope from this you get an idea of the sort of things they did and so how the early chemists were able to piece together some rules for elements and compounds.
In fact, Lavoisier was the first to make a real list of elements and he still got some things wrong. Here's a quote from the relevant Wiki page:
QUOTE
The book contains 33 elements, only 23 of which are elements in the modern sense.[5] The elements given by Lavoisier are: light, caloric, oxygen, azote (nitrogen), hydrogen, sulphur, phosphorous (phosphorus), charcoal, muriatic radical (chloride), fluoric radical (fluoride), boracic radical, antimony, arsenic, bismuth, cobalt, copper, gold, iron, lead, manganese, mercury, molybdena (molybdenite), nickel, platina (platinum), silver, tin, tungstein (tungsten), zinc, lime, magnesia (magnesium), barytes (baryte), argill (clay or earth of alum), and silex.[6]
UNQUOTE
From: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traité_Élémentaire_de_Chimie
It was a long and painful process that was only really sorted out in the latter half of the c.19th with Mendele'ev.