Sensei

sine alpha = b/c cosine alpha = a/c Tables can be used. They speed up calculations. Tables were used frequently in the 1980s and 1990s for trigonometry before FPUs were introduced to processors. But there are algorithms which simulate sin/cos without having to rely on tables. Obviously you can find detailed descriptions of algorithms on.. Wikipedia.. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sine

BTW, g is not constant... Simplified equation is: g(r)= GM/r^2 g varies with latitude and longitude, altitude and distance from the center of the Earth etc. etc. It varies according to the type of rock found underground and is even used by geologists to find out what is underground (to help miners and engineers from petrochemical industry). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravity_of_Earth https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravity_anomaly https://www.google.com/search?q=gravity+anomaly+map

No. We don't use "numeral systems in calculus"... Numeral system is just a way to display numbers.. 1) computers don't compute calculus by themselves. They execute program written in machine code. 2) computers are programmable, so programmer is responsible for making code which is doing something the programmer wants. 3) computers have just a basic set of math instructions. Add, subtract, multiply, divide, and, or, xor, not, sin, cos. Nothing complex. Actually, you don't need to have multiply, divide, sin or cos instructions in CPU at all. Old CPUs (e.g. Motorola 6502/6510) did not have them, but programmer still could simulate these operations. 4) you don't need computer to compute by yourself. He had a brain... and a sheet of paper... and a pencil... Doubtful.

Nothing, but visual representation of a number, changes in different numeral systems ("bases")..Regardless if it is PI, or any other number. 255 = 0xFF = $FF = %11111111 = CCLV It is still the same value, just differently written.. You should start from reading Wikipedia article about numeral systems ("bases") first. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numeral_system "A numeral system (or system of numeration) is a writing system for expressing numbers; that is, a mathematical notation for representing numbers of a given set, using digits or other symbols in a consistent manner."

No, I don't ... and I suppose any member of this forum too, of any real world example of "stealing ideas from scientific forum layman, by somebody who later received Nobel prize".. You are skirting, because you do not know as well. Otherwise, give a direct answer, the name of Nobel prize winner and from who he or she stole the idea on scientific forum.

..any real world example of this extraordinary claim.. ?

I will give you generic answer, If you have company X *), making product Y *), you can search net for "X Y SDK" to check if said company offers Software Development Kit (SDK), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_development_kit Which can be used by 3rd party developer to extend functionality of product Y. Sometimes such SDK are only available after signing NDA. SDK comes with sample projects for various programming languages, usually C/C++, or web API (e.g. JSON), or external static or dynamic linkable library with headers. With documentation describing how to use it. After downloading you join community, i.e. other 3rd party developers, and have access to programmers in said company X. They will answer your questions which will appear during development using their SDK. *) X and Y are meaningless. Can be anything.

Fertilizers are classified by what they give the plant. "Nitrogen fertilizer" is scientific proper name. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fertilizer#Nitrogen_fertilizers There are also "potassium fertilizers", "phosphorus fertilizers" etc. etc. Naturally the soil is fertilized by "thunderstorm rain". https://www.google.com/search?q=thunderstorm+in+nitrogen+cycle "lightning that accompanies thunderstorms can act to add nitrogen to the soil. ... Nitrogen is transformed to a plant-usable form (nitrogen fixation) by the electrical discharges that can occur within thunderstorms. The usable nitrogen is added to the soil as a component of precipitation." "Nitrogen in the atmosphere can be transformed into a plant-usable form, a process called nitrogen fixation, by lightning. ... Lightning does add nitrogen to the soil, as nitrates dissolve in precipitation. This helps plants, but microorganisms in the soil do the vast majority of nitrogen fixation." I have container outside, where I am catching rainwater, and use it for houseplants instead of tap water. https://www.google.com/search?q=how+much+nitrogen+does+lightning+produce "According to a new paper by Ott and Pickering in the Journal of Geophysical Research, each flash of lightning on average in the several mid-latitude and subtropical thunderstorms studied turned 7 kilograms (15.4 pounds) of nitrogen into chemically reactive NOx"

To delay refresh by 1 second try this: https://docs.oracle.com/javase/tutorial/essential/concurrency/sleep.html or this: https://docs.oracle.com/javase/7/docs/api/java/util/concurrent/TimeUnit.html

There are special ANSI codes to control cursor position and clearing terminal, storing and restoring cursor position etc etc. https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/ANSI_escape_code Write example code which is using them to check whether it is what you want. It is independent from used computer language.

"panta rhei" ...use historical data to check how often some things have happened in the past, and extrapolate it to the future.. Could be anything, natural or non-natural disaster. Unfortunately such things get worldwide attention (unlike some good-but-boring things).

What with Nitrogen? It is part of DNA/RNA/amino acids.. Google Translated from foreign website: "Nitrogen fertilizers. Their use has the greatest impact on increasing the yield mass [5] and extending the growing season. Nitrogen contained in the soil is quickly washed away, so fertilization should be spread over time and applied during the period of intensive plant growth [6]." "Phosphorus fertilizers Phosphorus is retained in the soil and does not wash away even under the influence of rain. Soil fertilized with phosphorus accumulates the element over the years, therefore phosphorus fertilizers are used in concentrated doses every 2-3 years. This type of fertilizer should be applied in the soil at a depth of 10-40 cm [7]." "Nitrogen accounted for the vast majority (78%) of the nutrients consumed in manufactured fertilizers, with an estimated consumption of 59 kg/ha on average in the EU that ranged from 19 kg/ha in Portugal to 125 kg/ha in the Netherlands. In contrast, the average estimated consumption for Phosphorus was 6 kg/ha (from 2 to 10 kg/ha) and 11 kg/ha for Potassium (from 2 to 33 kg/ha). "

Not necessarily. There are ways to introduce genetic material to adult organisms. e.g. specially prepared viruses. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vectors_in_gene_therapy https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_delivery ..but in the previous post, I was thinking about transfer of genes to embryo cell, to have entire organism with changed genes since the beginning..

You will be more lucky to search for experiments performed on animals. https://www.google.com/search?q=cryogenic+experiments+on+animals The main problem is that water molecule in solid state has a smaller density than when it is in liquid state. This means that after temperature is lowered the same amount of water inside of cell is taking more space, and causes microscopical damages. After unfreezing cells are shattered and unable to work correctly. There are some animals which can survive freezing and unfreezing processes. They are genetically adapted to do so. Even quite big one like wood frog. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wood_frog Biotechnologists/geneticists could try to identify which genes are responsible for it in the wood frog and attempt to transfer them to other animals.

Single individual can return to the way ancient and prehistoric people lived, but entire human population cannot. Significant increase of human population is result of invention of artificial fertilizers at the beginning of XX century. Without them, pesticides and GMO, and modern automated agriculture, billions of people would die. Reminding you, two (and more) centuries ago 90-95% of the all people were farmers. Not because they wanted. They had to produce food. Traditional agricultural work is ineffective.. Significant amount of production was lost due to bugs, illnesses, unpleasant weather conditions, and barren soil.

You should use the list.append() method to append an item to the list. https://www.w3schools.com/python/ref_list_append.asp list[index] = "data" assigns "data" at the specified index of the list. It must exists in the first place. Some programming languages allows appendage of element by list[] = "data", but it's not Python. You don't need to have a 'cnt' variable at all. It's equal to len(list) (the length of the list). No, you did not. You misunderstood problem (which was clearly stated in your error message i.e. "IndexError: list assignment index out of range "), and used inappropriate for this problem workaround... You *should* be dynamically appending elements at the end of the list..

It is very easy to visualize. But it's better to show it with the example of birds and camouflage color. We have a bird population. They have offspring. Some are whiter than their parents, others are blacker than their parents. If they live on rocks, the more gray-black ones are harder for predators to spot. If they live in cold regions of the Earth, whitish ones are more difficult to see on snow by predators. These more visible are more likely to be a target for predators than those with a better camouflage color as they blend in with the surroundings they live in. Cells subdivide. DNA splits to two chains, then rebuilds in two new pieces. But unlike people thought couple hundred years ago (mostly religious people), replication is not perfect. There is introduced random error. Radioactive Carbon C-14 is decaying at a random moment (Carbon is part of DNA/RNA/cells in organic compounds, proteins, fats, amino acids etc.), cosmic rays pass through everything and damage (ionize) everything on their path, free radicals are reacting with DNA/RNA/cell compounds and damaging them etc. etc. Majority of these damages can be fixed. Some are meaningless to living cell and cell survives change. Some are so dramatic that cell is dying. But tiny part of mutations are appropriate and meaningful. Depending where animal is living (e.g. rocks or on snow) random gradual change of gene responsible for coding skin or feather color is accidentally giving better camouflage against predators. From time to time, there is created random mutation in which animal is getting yet another vertebrae in the spine. From time to time there is born animal which has LESS vertebrae in the spine than parents.. From time to time there is born animal/human which has one finger more and one finger less than parents. etc. etc. They still could be successful in other alternative environments. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polydactyly "Polydactyly or polydactylism (from Greek πολύς (polys) 'many', and δάκτυλος (daktylos) 'finger'),[1] also known as hyperdactyly, is an anomaly in humans and animals resulting in supernumerary fingers and/or toes.[2] Polydactyly is the opposite of oligodactyly (fewer fingers or toes)." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oligodactyly "Oligodactyly (from the Ancient Greek oligos meaning "few" and δάκτυλος daktylos meaning "finger") is the presence of fewer than five fingers or toes on a hand or foot.[1][2]" "humans have 33 vertebrae, frogs have 10 or fewer, and snakes can have more than 300." Males and females of the same specie can have different number of vertebrae. https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Average-number-of-vertebrae-in-males-and-females-of-27-species-of-caudate-amphibians-and_tbl1_232710526

You didn't rethink your statement comprehensively... How do you know? What will remain of the present civilization for future generations ...? Nothing. Because you don't write in stone.. You record data on tapes, diskettes, CD, DVD, pendrive.. after several years they won't be readable.. You release the most valuable newspapers news behind pay-wall. You make everything for money. You make everything accessible only by CAPTCHA. Which means automatically scanning bots cannot archive data. (ordinary user don't know that CAPTCHA often activates when scanning bot tries to archive server data, after a few too quick attempts.. they're starting appearing on normal websites which are accessible to human, with regular rate of access) If somebody won't pay, company, government, person, won't release details. So, the majority of information, will be lost as soon as you're dead, or sooner. Somebody after 50-100 years will have doubts you ever existed. You could be just computer program, chatbot, pretending the real human, and writing here. You could be artificial intelligence, making fake news from the past. You will be lucky to end up so.. If you will be unlucky, nobody will ever hear about your existence.. To joigus second (actually n-th) incarnation in 2200 (or 4200) will say the same as you now, I will just copy'n'paste my post from now.. I will just change a couple bits to fit the modern time.. Good old copy'n' paste! What I would do without it..

You have empty tape, empty diskette, empty hard drive, empty pendrive. It can be filled by meaningful (or meaningless) data. Does it mean it has potential to become making sense? From initial zeroes? Which were at the beginning of existence of pendrive/HD/CD/whatever.. Piece of wood has "potential" to be state-of-art.. if somebody turns it to become paper, then draw something on it.. Piece of rock has "potential" to be space rocket, if somebody extracts precious metal atoms from it, melt it, and use in the rocket.. Your smartphone and PC have potential to become self-aware and start thinking more extensively than you ever imagined.. Hydrogen has "potential" to be Helium.. ..and Helium has "potential" to be Carbon.. ..and Carbon has "potential" to be Oxygen.. (inside of star or particle accelerator) and so on, so on.. ... empty piece of paper has "potential" to be filled by meaningful, senseful data.. ...we/you should start from the definition of "potential"..

Scientists don't talk/think much about "supernatural" things.. don't you think so? Some said, "I think, therefore I am".. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cogito,_ergo_sum If artificial intelligence and/or cyborg and/or robot and/or computer program says so.. what do you think about his/her/its statement.. ? Is artificial intelligence "natural" or "supernatural" ?

No need to thank us. It is Christmas (almost)..

"it took a while for early societies to represent it in their maths" as written symbol.. If ancient manuscript translator see nothing, thinks there is nothing. Zero is nothing.. Ancient manuscript author used nothing to indicate zero result.. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/0#Ancient_Near_East "Ancient Egyptian numerals were of base 10.[14] They used hieroglyphs for the digits and were not positional. By 1770 BC, the Egyptians had a symbol for zero in accounting texts. The symbol nfr, meaning beautiful, was also used to indicate the base level in drawings of tombs and pyramids, and distances were measured relative to the base line as being above or below this line.[15] By the middle of the 2nd millennium BC, the Babylonian mathematics had a sophisticated sexagesimal positional numeral system. The lack of a positional value (or zero) was indicated by a space between sexagesimal numerals. By 300 BC, a punctuation symbol (two slanted wedges) was co-opted as a placeholder in the same Babylonian system. In a tablet unearthed at Kish (dating from about 700 BC), the scribe Bêl-bân-aplu wrote his zeros with three hooks, rather than two slanted wedges.[16] The Babylonian placeholder was not a true zero because it was not used alone, nor was it used at the end of a number. Thus numbers like 2 and 120 (2×60), 3 and 180 (3×60), 4 and 240 (4×60) looked the same, because the larger numbers lacked a final sexagesimal placeholder. Only context could differentiate them." Even simple subtraction, sooner or later, ends up with zero result. If somebody can subtract, must understand the meaning of zero..

Arecibo collapse video recorded by camera and drone: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OgqrRy96z_0

Dark days for the whole world scientific community... The new POTUS should announce the rebuild of the antenna.

To accelerate the work on chess figures you need a lathe. Water or donkey accelerated wood lathe. Almost the same design as the watermill. How long it would take to make watermill with an axe? Maybe couple hours or days. It does not have to be full scale. You can make a "watch" with a stick on the ground ... (but it won't work at night)