Theophrastus

To Abchirk: I believe you meant for it to be formic acid, such as that in ants, however, you should take note that numerous organic acids, fit your description. Ah, specifics, specifics...

Well, here goes... 1. Most Helpful Member: UC 2. Most Knowledgable Member: GDG 3. Most Interesting Member: Bascule 4. Best Debater: iNow 5. Most Enjoyable Member: iNow 6. Most Improved Member: jimmydasaint As well, an honourable mention to Insane Alien, Skeptic, Kaeroll and Kleinwolf (As Snail phrased it, I'm utterly fascinated by his posts), to name off the top of my head. On a similar basis, I'll note that many of my picks also deserve honourable mention, for a variety of other categories. Vote and participate in the democratic process! (But what's wrong with communism, daddy? ) Cheers to all forum"ers!"

Happy now? (yeah, I screwed; you're right that under acidic conditions, the products would react (they don't react on their own otherwise, due to the low acid ionisation constant of acetic acid), but, what if things are to be left basic? ) ps: Examine slight editting, made of my initial post Merged post follows: Consecutive posts merged [edit] I was actually doing a smidge of research, and I found another substitute reaction, to turn the aldehyde into a primary alcohol, that's actually also pretty viable for the home chemist, given the availability of the compounds described (isopropyl alcohol, and a source of aluminum). Personally, I haven't tried it myself (as I have only just heard of it), but given the simplicity, I should go about doing so relatively soon (granted, my free time, has been rather limited this summer). Anyhow, previously, we stripped the 1- bromo 1-iodoethane, of halogens, producing acetaldehyde. This acetaldehyde, is then placed in a solution of isopropyl alcohol (pure "rubbing alcohol, which can be obtained by adding salt, to an isopropyl alcohol solution (rubbing alcohol), resulting in the precipitation of an alcohol layer). Aluminum isopropylate is then added. This acts as a catalyst, in the following reaction: [ce] CH3CH=O + Al(OiPr)3 + iPrOH -> CH3CH2OH + (CH3)2C=O + Al(OiPr) [/ce] As for making the catalytic aluminum isopropylate, this can easily be done, by heating an aluminum plate, then adding it to isopropyl alcohol. Of course, you ought to use small amounts of iodine, or a globule of mercury, to initially break through the hydroxide layer, protecting the pure aluminum metal. As for the reaction with the alcohol, I would guess it'ld be quite vigorous, though I haven't tried it before, and thus cannot say, what extra percautions, in addition to the basic gloves, lab coat, and goggles, one would have to take. (I personally recommend trying it on an extremely small scale, in a test tube, just to test the nature of it, before proceeding to proper synthesis) [ce] 2Al + 6CH(CH3)2OH -> 2Al(OCH(CH3)2)3 + 3H2 [/ce] Here's a brief description of the actual reaction process... http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meerwein%E2%80%93Ponndorf%E2%80%93Verley_reduction Cheers

Theoretically yes, but that's only if there aren't any other functional groups, or radical bonding sites, that get in the way. I suppose it would work with something simple like 1- chlorobutane, or something of the like though, and then as said before, you can reduce the alcohol, to ethane. Doing a bit of searching, I found something similar; playing off of Markinov's Rule, and reversing the process. For example, one example I found was vinyl bromide, which when reacted with hydroiodic acid, breaks the central double bond, to form 1- bromo 1- iodoethane. This is then reduced with silver oxide to acetaldehyde and silver bromide and iodide salts. [ce] CH2=CHBr + HI -> CH3-CHBrI [/ce] [ce] CH3-CHBrI + Ag2O -> CH3CH=O + AgBr + AgI [/ce] Theoretically, you could then go further, treating the aldehyde with a strong base, like [ce] NaOH [/ce] or [ce] KOH [/ce], to produce ethanol and potassium acetate, due to reaction of the acetic acid product, with the basic potassium hydroxide. You could then reduce the ethanol to ethane, but yeah, it's definitely a rather timely process. [ce] CH3CH=O + KOH -> CH3CH2OH + CH3COOK [/ce]

In terms of oxygen levels, there is a contrary tendency, in that oxygen solubility, in water, increases, with declining temperature, and as such, you could alternatively expect, more dissolved oxygen in cooler, possibly deeper waters, depending on the conditions, and factors at hand.

Out of interest, I always knew that bilateral symmetry was a factor in a female's selection of a male, but does it also function, the other way around? I'm guessing the basis for it, would be the difficulty and infertility, associated with deformity and age, which would then become negative traits in a possible mate. Thus the negative sexual appeal of nonuniform attributes such as liver spots, wrinkles, etc.. I suppose that bilateral symmetry, or simplified in my context, physical uniformity, would bear pretty much the same justification as that for smooth skin; youth=fertility, and thus these factors of youth, become a generalisation for the selection of a mate. Any thoughts?

Electricity from trees? Not to be rude, but this sounds like definite pseudoscience. The energy- producing biochemical reactions, within plants, occur on a molecular level, and while I do admit it may be possible to utilise these reactions, for generation of electricity, I don't see how the hell, one can go about doing so, by focusing on the plant, on a macroscopic level. Actually, a very simple explanation for this so- called "phenomenon" might be a redox reaction between the two metals, however given the distances involved, and the fact that tree sap, rich in polysaccharides and the like IIRC, would make for a very poor electrolyte (correct me if I'm wrong), I doubt it could generate the voltages described. Furthermore, try and keep things relevant to the original poster's querry. I really don't see how hammering nails into trees, absentmindedly, and then seeing if you generate a current (highly unlikely anyway), would make for a fruitful inquiry.

Actually, while it is true that most enzymes adapt to operation under physiological conditions, the trend of higher temperatures resulting in greater reaction rates does persist to an extent, as while temperatures above 50 degrees celsius are almost certainly destructive (though enzyme heat sensitivity does vary a fair bit), if the reaction rate is fast enough, you can bypass the basic "rules" of temperature tolerance, increasing the temperature substantially (here, we're talking a fair bit over 50, not 600 degrees, or something like that ), as, the faster the reaction rate, the shorter the heat exposure will be, and thus, the lesser likelihood of a temperature- induced breakdown of you enzymic catalyst. But yeah, as Insane Alien said, for something like this an inorganic catalyst would be the prefered option. Either way, I myself greatly doubt using an enzyme, for something like this, would be feasible.

Jsouha_omega, in this matter, I recommend you be a little more precise, and narrow your querry. First, choose a particular part of the plant, (following some serious research into relevant biochemical processes, and function, of course) to which you can apply electricity. Secondly, create a hypothesis, to how electricity, may effect, this particular biochemical system. (What it may ionize, how might it effect various constituents, and components, etc.) You can then, take a group of identical healthy plants, and apply graduated quantities of electricity, with each plant's quantity, varying precisely the same as the one before it, so that it forms a range, which you can then study, from no electrical input, to greatest electrical input. You then control all other variables, keeping them equal (ie moisture, soil quality, sunlight) and watch for effects. You can then examine your observations, and form a conclusion, based upon the results. (Again, research is a must in this) Anyhow,l hope this helps, and best of luck. ps: (An idea) I don't know what your interests are, but now that I think of it, it might be interesting to see the effects of electrical stimuli, on relevant organs, which contribute to sexual reproduction, in plants. pps: Personally though, this project seems a little complex, it may be a little simpler, from the perspective of analysis, to study the biochemical processes of the plant metabolic process, and then add particular chemicals to the soil, to study their possible effects, on the plant. It may also have real- life applications, due to wastage, from industries.

What can you say, I'm more of a romantic... Chopin's nocturnes (all of them) Mazurka op. 63 no. 3 in C# minor (Chopin) Chopin's piano concerto #2 La Campanella (Liszt) Dvorak's Romance in F minor A variety of dvorak's slavonic dances Moonlight Sonata in C# minor (Beethoven) Tempo di Valse (Dvorak) And just as Dave, I enjoy John Williams' soundtrack, however of a different movie. (Schindler's List) Theme from Schindler's List Remembrances Por Una Cabeza (I know that's Gardel, not John Williams, but it was used in the movie)

Sorry Melvin, but I believe that you put in the arrow, going the wrong way : [ce] 2NaOH + CaCO3 -> Na2CO3 + Ca(OH)2 [/ce]

I agree, that atmospheric lead levels may be a factor in mental retardation (AFAIK, this point has yet to be proven, though ought not be dismissed) in isolated cases, however there are numerous more important factors in measuring intelligence, and I really doubt that the atmospheric lead content shall have a very prevalent, if noticeable, effect upon the intelligence of the human populace. (Given its current quantity, as of course, breathing pure leaded vapours, is not pleasant. To say the least! ) (Edit) Well, here's a lovely little study of dug up done by the division of environmental engineering, at the Asian Institute of Technology, which found that while there were few noticeable effects of atmospheric lead exposure, it did find that lead accumulates in the bloodstream, possibly as a result of this atmospheric lead content, reaching saturation point, at around the age of forty. Blood lead content is also found to be clocely related to road proximity, traffic networks, and the like (As one would expect), suggesting a correlation, however, the trace lead content of food, may also prove a factor. Here's the link: http://www.springerlink.com/content/r52j21w703t17488/ And here is the link to a similar study, done at the university of zurich: http://www.springerlink.com/content/n3375775p05l21u8/

Furthermore, it appears to be his second copyright violation: here's the original source of that lovely paragraph, wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cocamidopropyl_betaine

Absolutely brilliant Blade; If this works, I shall be forever indebted. (And utilising the spare time, once drafted to deleting junk emails, to further my ambitions of global dominance, by means of vast propaganda- spewing republican armies. heh heh heh All the best...)

Blue pill, you say? Well, ironically that was the very discussion of last week's Colbert Report: (skip to 1:15) http://watch.ctv.ca/the-colbert-report/episodes/the-colbert-report---july-23-2009#clip196751 Oh my god! Healthcare reform is... The Matrix? ps: In regards to the blue pill relevant to the OP, I'm not suprised at this supposedly "unexpected" healing power of m & m's: after all, my doctor uses them periodically to induce vomitting in patients

Ah Fswd has a good point, refering to the solvents. (As well as his actual intent of refering to possible precipitation, due to protonation) In the first question, you state that the alkaline phase is diluted with water, before adding the acid (which generally implies using water as the solvent), however in your second question, you refer to methanolic potassium hydroxide. If I'm not mistaken, doesn't methanolic mean, dissolved in methanol? If so, where does the methanol come into play? If so, was the water allowed to intermix with the methanol, or was there formation of layers? (I'm slowly beginning to confuse myself )

One thing that I find peculiar in terms of human sexual orientation, is that while female homosexuality, is more socially accepted, the rate of homosexuality is actually almost half of what it is in males. In this, female sexual orientation may be seen as more of a continuum process, due to greater bisexual tendencies in females than in males. I think that this may be attributed to certain deficiencies of key aspects for female social interaction, that decrease, as one moves further towards the male end of the spectrum, such as verbal fluency, and the like. Male homosexuality, I suppose could also be seen as a means, in the days of our more primitive ancestors to balance power, within our tribal, almost "herd- like" communities, such as in iNow's example with male lions, as well as a means for social cohesion and interaction. In regards to hermaphrodism, I know that in the mollusca phylum, there are numerous species, that are exclusively hermaphroditic. From a selection perspective, this is obviously optimum, due to lack of selection pressures, in procreation. Cool thread iNow! I for one, was pitiably unaware of the prevalence of homosexuality in the animal kingdom.

Firstly, simply dropping sodium metal in water, does not result in a 90- 100% conc. solution. To make pure sodium hydroxide, would require use of excess sodium per mole (god forbid ). A much safer, and easier way, would be to gently boil a pre- existing solution of sodium hydroxide, to necessary concentrations, however sodium hydroxide can easily be bought in pure ionic form, as lye crystals, or a similar name. You can then proceed to add the solid, ionic sodium hydroxide to water, diluting to necessary concentrations. Caustic soda, and lye are also sodium hydroxide, however, this time, in the form of a solution of variable concentration. As previously stated, I hope that was simply some austere humour of yours, as it otherwise shows lack of prudence, and as such, I recommend that you read the following, before you proceed. They go by the name of material safety data sheets, or MSDS for short. It's best you familiarise yourself with them. http://msds.chem.ox.ac.uk/SO/sodium_hydroxide.html http://www.jtbaker.com/msds/englishhtml/s2594.htm ps: In regards to the magnesium, you ought to test the weight of the sharpener, as both magnesium and steel are used, however, the lightweight ones are magnesium. It should also be noted that the blade of the sharpener is always steel, and should be removed.

Simply put, in your third response, you are correct that: [ce] Cl-C6H5-COOH + NaHCO3 -> NaOOC-C6H5-Cl + H2O + CO2 [/ce] or simplified: [ce] H+ + HCO3 <-> H2CO3 <-> H2O + CO2 [/ce] For number one, you are right to say that the acidic conditions, result in the protonation of the acid, however its more important that if the conditions remained alkaline during the formation of 4-chlorobenzoic acid, the acid would simply react with the basic potassium hydroxide. The reaction you have described, in fact, can be performed in absence of a solution, with powdered potassium hydroxide, however, the lack of regulation, would mean the final product would be benzyl alcohol and an organic potassium salt, ruining your benzoic acid yield: [ce] Cl-C6H5-COOH + KOH -> Cl-C6H5COOK + H2O [/ce] The second question, I'm not really sure about, however, I would guess that the [ce] KOH [/ce] would, in forming an organic potassium salt, in a similar fashion to the reaction above, only with the alcohol's hydroxyl group, in place of the carboxylic, may further react with the benzenoic acid, however, as I'm not sure what pathway such a reaction might take, it might be more sincere to say I have no idea. Best of luck; hope this helps.

Simply put: many. Very many. You see, the polarity of a bond, is based upon two things, electronegativity and the geometric configuration of atoms within the molecule. Electronegativity, can be simplified, as an atom's affinity (not quite sure if it's an adequate word, but I'll go for it) for electrons. When there is a difference in electronegativity, between two bonded atoms, within a compound, chrages are formed, as the electrons are not equally "shared," by the two nuclei, and this results in a polar covalent bond (however, usually, only differences of around 0.4 and greater, in electronegativity, allow this to have a noticeable effect). An ionic bond, I generally like to think of, as a private case of the polar covalent bond, as it simply means that in this tug- of- war, between the two atoms, by means of a significant difference in electronegativity, (generally a difference in electronegativity, greater than 1.7 is required IIRC) the atom with a lesser electronegativity loses an electron, while the other atom, with the greater electronegativity, gains it. As the number of protons and electrons is no longer proportional, within the atoms, one molecule has a negative charge, (the one that gains an electron) and the other a positive charge (that which loses the electron). These opposing charges then result in an attraction between the two atoms; thus the ionic bond. This then allows for the resultant ionic compound, to freely dissociate in an aqueous medium. Because of the nature of ionic bonds, ionic compounds, are by definition, polar. However, in the case of polar covalent bonds, while charges may exist between two bonded atoms, in a compound, this may not necessarily result in polarity, as geometric configuration, must be taken into account. In figuring out whether the resultant molecule is polar, it's often useful to think of this separation of charge along the bonds axis, induced by the difference in electronegativities, as a vector. The direction of this vector, can be seen as moving along the bond axis, from positive charge, to negative charge. This separation of charge, along a polar covalent bond, is known as a dipole, while the representative vector, a dipole moment. You then proceed to add all of these vectors (the dipole moments), to attain the final charge, of the molecule. This is where molecular geometry comes into play. For example, while the carbon to oxygen bonds, in [ce] CO2 [/ce] are polar, as the molecule is linear, in adding the vectors, moving in opposing directions, you end up with a zero net charge. In contrast, in water, the bent structure of the molecule, means that the resultant vector will be of an adequately high positive value, to make the molecule polar. You could often perform such an analysis given molecular structure alone, estimating for magnitude, with the difference in electronegativity. Hope this helps. (As always, some lovely links...) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dipole#Molecular_dipoles http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronegativity http://www.green-planet-solar-energy.com/images/PT-small-electroneg.gif

In terms of simply bringing together hydrogen gas (H2) and chlorine, iodine or bromine (Cl2, I2, Br) the problem is that the diatomic gases have little reason initially to interact with one another under ordinary conditions, unless you are to increase the temperature, use a catalyst, or something else of the like. But yes, the method remains valid, after which you could then bubble the anhydrous gas through water, where the dissociation results in the production of acid. In terms of the hydrochloric acid, it's far easier to simply buy 30% hydrochloric acid, sold as muriatic acid, from a hardware store, which is both easy and cheap. In regards to chemkid's idea, to produce [ce] HCl [/ce] the method is invalid, as due to the instability of the oxygen to oxygen bond in hydrogen peroxide, the reaction, will not produce hydrochloric acid and diatomic oxygen, but instead, will initially produce hypochlorous acid, a weaker acid, but a much stronger oxidiser, and is far more corrosive and dangerous. In contact with acids, it generates chlorine gas. (which of course extraordinarily poisonous) [ce] H2O2 + Cl2 -> 2HClO [/ce] [ce] 2HClO + 2H+ -> H2O + Cl2 [/ce] If you intend to make hypochlorous acid, you should once again use purely glass apparatus, for its containment, and keep it in tinted glass or in an opaque container, in a cool dark area, as light and heat, result in it decomposing to hydrochloric acid. [ce] 2HClO -> O2 + 2HCl [/ce] However, as a means to obtain hydrochloric acid, (decomposing [ce] HClO [/ce]) it is not good, as your product, shall be tainted with hypochlorous acid impurities, and the decomposition process, if coerced by heat, may become very violent. In regards to the other query of Sulfuric acid, the only viable home synthesis method I know of, is to bubble sulfur dioxide gas, into hydrogen peroxide, which you can buy from suppliers at a (relatively) concentrated 30%. [ce] SO2 + H2O2 -> H2SO4 [/ce] However, you should note that sulfur dioxide is vastly poisonous, and you should test any apparatus for leaks, before performing the reaction. If possible, it is simpler to just buy sulfuric acid outright. Some hardware stores and the like, sell it, under various names. If you already have sulfuric acid, you can easily make [ce] HCl [/ce], if you wish, simply by reacting the sulfuric acid, with table salt, as so: [ce] H2SO4 + 2NaCl -> Na2SO4 + 2HCl [/ce] The final strong acid, nitric acid, I do not recommend making, unless you have the practical expertise, and the necessary apparatus to undertake the reaction. It is not a complex process, but a dangerous one, due to the release of deadly [ce] NO2 [/ce]. You should use full glass apparatus, as [ce] NO2 [/ce], attacks most rubber and plastics, sealing any leaks, or possible holes with teflon tape. In storing it, as it does over time produce deadly [ce] NO2 [/ce] gas, due to decomposition of the acid, store it in a cool place, in a container of dark tinted glass, as exposure to light can bring about increased decomposition. The process itself, involves the funnelling of NO2 gas, into water. The [ce] NO2 [/ce] can be produced by heating a nitrate salt, resulting in a metal oxide, and red- brown [ce] NO2 [/ce] gas. [ce] H2O + 3NO2 -> 2HNO3 + NO [/ce] But again I stress that this is a rather dangerous method, and ought be performed with caution. Check the MSDS for all of these compounds, to understand any health hazards involved. As for organic carboxylic acids, these can be rather simply formed, through the oxidation of primary alcohols, with strong oxidisers (As captain panic implied ) like [ce] KMnO4 [/ce] or [ce] K2Cr2O7 [/ce] (potassium permanganate, and potassium dichromate respectively) [ce] RCH2OH + O2 -> RCOOH [/ce] (here, R represents a non- functional group, which varies, depending upon the alcohol used (ie ethanol, butanol, phenol)) In terms of attaining the acids from minerals, while sulphate minerals exist, they can not be easily used to produced sulfuric acid, unless reacted with a more corrosive (not necessarily stronger) acid, such as nitric acid. In terms of minerals, salt is also known, as the mineral halite, but I don't really see what you're trying to get at with this. (Whew, that was some hell of a long post )

My friends and I were thinking of building an air cannon, to play around with motion equations, and secondly, to have a blast by utilising it in various ways. The conceptual idea is pretty simple, a cylinder of pressurised air, connected by a butterfly valve to a relatively long, rigid PVC tube, which would act as the main barrel. We were then thinking to then mount our settup onto a a flat wooden base, and then simply add an axel, on which one could regulate angle. As I said, the idea's simple, but I thought to ask some more experienced members here, for perhaps some hints in regards to how to achieve optimum performance. Any thoughts?

Ah damn, did I really say voltage? Well yeah, true, it's current that counts. For example, electricity, even at a low voltage, implying a high current can still be lethal. Thanks for cleaning that up!

Personally speaking, while there are methods for synthesising sodium hydroxide, I find that given its low cost (I can get 3kg of crystallized NaOH, for around $17), it's a lot simpler (and cheaper, in terms of the reagents required in synthesis from scratch), to just buy it. You can even attain it at most hardware stores under the common name of lye, or lye crystals; something of that sort. Most methods of synthesis used, are electrochemical, and generally, to achieve an adequate yield, require immensely high voltages, and quite great risk. The most common industrial method is the chloroalkali process which is, the elctrolysis of a salt solution, yielding chlorine gas and sodium hydroxide. While this is a well- known method, it is not one that can be used by amateur chemists, due to the high voltages required to attain sufficient yields, and the large quantities of chlorine gas produced. For the integrity of this forum, don't try such a method in full, unless you have the proper means for execution, understand the safety risks involved, or preferably, not at all. I also strongly recommend looking up the MSDS for chlorine gas. I am also aware of another means, using mercury, as a reducing agent, to create a mercury sodium amalgam, and then reacting it with water, however, due to production of mercury vapours and the like, this is another method, I strongly advise against. Honestly, it's a lot cheaper to buy it from hardware stores and the like, and a lot less dangerous and time- consuming.