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Since we're talking about why/how decussation evolved, where in evolution did it begin and is it universal among animals? Mammals? Yes. Marsupials? Reptiles? Arthropods? Cephalopods? Etc.

Several variations on the theme exist, but this seems the oldest. Jonathan Swift, Thursday 9 November 1710

The waterworks analogy of voltage is water pressure, which exists and can be read without flow. The waterworks analogy of electric current is water flow.

A battery sitting on the shelf has a very small current of electrons flowing through the air from one terminal to the other. Connecting a wire to one terminal will also cause a very small current of electrons to flow down the wire.

Q: What would we do with all that thermal energy? A: Convert it into electric energy and power a laser shot into the deep void of space. (However, it would burn a hole in the edge of the universe in about 50 billion years).

In this Age of Terrorism, I have no problem with banning the wearing of masks in public for security and identity reasons. In America, government buildings and banks ban the wearing hats, hoods and sunglasses while inside. How could one ever discern whether the person fully hidden except for the eyes is a fat Muslim woman or a ninja loaded with explosives, guns etc. You can't even see if they have hairy knuckles when trying to determine gender, and anyone can whisper in a falsetto. How could the police determine their identity without undressing them? What if everyone went around dressed like this? Women can wear head scarves and sunglasses.

For example, when the angle of the wire to the horizontal, α, is 90°, the wire bears “all” the sign’s weight, and the rod has “no” force applied to it (and, in fact, you can remove it without any consequence). The sin(90°)=1, and cos(90°)=0. So, the tensile force in the wire involves the sin(α) and the compressive force in the rod involves cos(α). When α=0°, then an infinite (ie, ∞) tensile force through the wire would hold up the sign, and the rod also bears “all” that tensile force. The sin(0°)=0, and cos(0°)=1. It's important to remember that the tensile force in the wire is the hypotenuse, and from there, use the definitions of the sine and cosine. It may be easier to use another method starting with the point where the sign, wire and rod meet. Draw the tensile force in the wire from the point diagonally upward toward the wall, draw the compressive force through the rod horizontally from the point outward (ie, in the direction away from the wall), and draw the gravitational force downward from the point. Think of what forces must counterbalance other forces in order for this system to be in equilibrium.

You should really learn the logic behind formulating the equations that involve trig functions (and you can get that knowledge from your text, notes, classmates, teacher, etc). Other than learning this logic academically, you can also develop a "gut feeling" for the trig with thought experiments using extreme angles such as 0° and 90° to the horizontal. Imagine the forces acting through the wire and rod in both cases. You don't need to imagine a specific amount of weight to use or to write any equations for these imaginary cases, but making diagrams would help you visualize it. These cases are especially helpful because the sine and cosine of these angles are either 1 or 0 (ie, "all" or "nothing"). So, first you'll want to develop "word answers" for the forces in the wire and rod, then you'll develop equations from these word answers. Developing a gut feeling about such problems is also helpful for tests where the teacher might give a problem never encountered by the students before, but must be worked out through their understanding of the subject matter. Just a friendly PS — If my memory serves me properly, this is a statics problem, not dynamics.

Modern concerns about the stability of the solar system began with Newton's gravitational model, and scientists have tried to find reasons for the stability ever since. Because the solar system consists primarily of the sun and the planets, the IAU's definition of a planet should help somewhat: Stability is indicated by phrases such as "is in orbit" and "has cleared the neighborhood". But, more to the point (I think), the solar system might be more accurately described as a system of "orbits" (and not just "planets") around the sun. For the purposes of stability, a planet is both mass and velocity, which both lend to its orbit and its stability. A planet remains in orbit because of both its mass and velocity. A "snapshot" of the solar system may make the solar system seem unstable, but it's not the complete picture. Looking at how we ride bikes helps describe how velocity plays a critical role. A snapshot would show someone sitting on a bike (without motion) and, yes, as we know through our own experiences, such a system is unstable. However, someone riding a bike is a much more stable system, which we've also experienced ourselves many times over. Also, synchrony does exist, for example between Pluto and Neptune. Cruithne and other objects orbit in synchrony with Earth, and other planets (notably Jupiter) also have objects orbiting in synchrony. All this goes into explaining the stability of the solar system. I previously mentioned the Titius-Bode Law. I don't see it as a law that stands on its own, but rather as a result of the stability of the solar system. I can't imagine that weak interplanetary gravitational forces exerted over billions of years has not produced synchrony, which is more or less synonymous with stability. If we could view the solar system over its lifetime, we would see the synchrony (and stability) evolve.

When the proteins denature, they usually aggregate (ie, stick to one another) after twisting and distorting. This happens, for example, when you add vinegar to milk. The proteins not only distort (ie, expose their hydrophobic "innards"), but they fall out of solution and aggregate ... they form curds. You can flush the acidic vinegar/whey solution out of the curds and put them in fresh milk, but they will remain mostly aggregated. Protein conformation is perhaps the main reason why animals maintain what is called "physiological conditions" (pH, temp, salinity, etc). For example, proteins begin unfolding above 40°C/104°F.

Just out of curiosity about this bit of bovine stercus, why would someone want to dissolve diamonds? Did she ever tell you?

A friend of mine who suffered paralysis once participated (after the paralysis, and as a teenager) in a study where scientists put him in a cold bath and monitored how his core temperature trended. Brain-dead people could be used for such studies, and without hurting "anyone"; however, it would be horribly unethical. Even relatively mild experiments from the past could never be performed again. Phil Zimbardo's Stanford prison study Stanley Milgram's experiment on obedience to authority figures Jane Elliott's insidious blue-eyed/brown-eyed experiment

Paranoia? There is an approximate synchrony of orbital periods of the planets (including Ceres), that's related to the Titius-Bode Law and Kepler's Third Law. I haven't read about it in a long time.

Depending on the war, much of the funding of a war circulates back through the American economy. Most of the cost of war equipment is "value-added" by workers, and even raw materials must be obtained by workers; however, that equipment can only wage war. Through war, we gain national security, which is not very tangible and difficult to quantify if we're not fending off invaders from our shores. We also gain sorrow, broken hearts, divorces, sleepless nights, PTSD cases, homeless people, psych ward patients, lost wages, and mountains of medical expenses. We lose lives and limbs, wage-earners and parents, etc. We also lose all those assets consumed, destroyed, lost or stolen in the prosecution of the war, or left/abandoned/given to foreign countries to help with their rebuilding, or destroyed for various reasons (security, excess, etc), etc. So, a lot of people wonder about the worth of fighting a foreign war.

It seems that, as societies become more advanced, they have more to lose, and so, the more they avert risks. America's FDA, Europe's EMA, Australia's TGA, etc do protect their societies. They seek to protect societies, not necessarily individuals. "The few must be sacrificed for the sake of the many." Diseases that people were dropping like flies from decades ago are no longer unacceptable because other diseases have been cured. People see cures around them, and they yearn more for a cure. It's another version of "keeping up with the Joneses". Their disease must wait its turn, if it ever comes. However, like Hugh and Chris Hempel, if you're really serious, you might find a way to follow the rules AND help your loved ones. This is good.

Hmm.... I studied down to the tunica intima as a tissue, but not its parts. But I did find this: Cryogenics protocol Intercellular clefts and fenestrae differ. Pinocytosis is the transfer through the cells, as you said. The fenestrae seem like specialized areas of the cell wall where vesicles form, which are then transported to the other side of the cell, seemingly to another fenestra. Or, just maybe, because that quote says "channels", that fenestrae are channels through these cells. I'm confused too, so I'm going to shut my mouth, but I'll keep listening because this is an interesting subject, Thanks.

I'm sorry, I wasn't trying to be rude. It's just that I googled "fenestrated capillaries" and found and then for "endothelium" So, it's the tissue consisting of a single layer of cells that has the pores, not the cells themselves. HOWEVER, Wikipedia does say but then it says So, Wikipedia should say

Break it down into parts, and think of the errors associated with them.

Try Googling it.

I wish we knew more about the particular circumstances to address. For example, if someone wanted to raise water from a river for irrigation purposes, hydraulic rams and other water raising devices would suffice. The OP mentions powering lights, but for what purpose? If we knew more, we could help more.

Try using lead cathedrals and other methods.

I'd have to guess that "keeping the vein open" means having an IV needle that's open to the air. When someone inhales, it creates less than atmospheric pressure in the chest, which might affect the veins and arteries running into and out of the chest. Because of the less-than-atmospheric pressure in the vein, and if the vein did not simply collapse, air might enter through the IV. A few bubbles wouldn't do much, but sufficient amounts of air can cause death. This information sounds like a warning against allowing an air space in IV bags connected to jugular veins. Although this air might oxygenate the blood, I cannot see this to be seriously viewed as "respiration", especially because the circumstances are contrived, impractical and unsustainable. If you enjoy such medical phenomena, this reminds me of the extraordinary case of Alexis St. Martin.

The main structural component of wood is cellulose, which is a polysaccharide (a polymer of sugars). Some bacteria, such as Streptococcus pneumoniae, produce polysaccharides, but producing solid fuels using bacteria seems inefficient. Algae might be used to convert solar energy directly into a solid fuel.

The only such veins that I know are the pulmonary veins carrying oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart. From where did you get the notion that air enters the jugular vein?