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The body recognizes insulin-producer cells ( cell beta from pancreatic islets) because they carry on its membrane the insulin protein. The insulin molecule for itself is too small to prompt an answer by the immune system. It is the insulin joined to the beta cells the one that cause T cells production. This T cells recognize the insulin molecule and cause the destruction of the cells joined to it. That is true, but we were not talking about injecting insulin. We were talking about eating it. That insulin is never going to reach the blood as itself, because it will be broken in amino acids before get there.

In order to go from an isomer to the other, the ring has to open ant then to close again in the new conformation. This is called mutarotation.

The problem here is that the article that presents Trprice is another example of the explanation of a scientific subject by a person who really doesn’t have the knowledge to write that article. However, I, as Trprice, have though that the subject is interesting, therefore, I have looked for the original article http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2590789/?tool=pubmed Diabetes type 1 is an autoimmune disease: the diabetic person’s lymphocytes destroy their own insulin-producer cells. This occurs because lymphocytes “think” that insulin is a toxin, and, as the insulin is on the insulin producer cells, the lymphocytes consider them as strange cells to destroy. The purpose of this treatment is to introduce in the diabetic person many insulin molecules. They induce tolerance: the immune system gets used to this molecules and it doesn’t recognize them as dangerous any more. Therefore, in theory, the system immune would produce progressively less lymphocytes directed to the insulin-producer cells. The body, in this way would be able to produce again its own insulin.

I am not a psychiatrist or a psychologist, but it is known than stressful situations lead to cravings or to increase the intensity of the old ones.

I think you are confused about the term “reversal potential”. For a certain neurotransmitter, it is the potential which the net movement of charges will be zero. When the membrane potential is more negative than the reversal potential , the net movement of charges caused by this neurotransmitter will do the membrane potential more positive. But once the potential of membrane is the same as the reversal potential, the net current flow of ions will be zero. If the membrane potential gets more positive than the reversal potential, the net movement of charges caused by the neurotransmitter will do the membrane potential more negative.

I think it could be due to anxiety, in the same way anxiety can produce food craving. Do you feel anxious or worried about something?

iNow, my imaginary lover orders me to thank you for the compliment

I have never had an imaginary friend. However, I have constantly been having imaginary lovers since I was 11. Or was he all the time the same lover who has been growing up? Anyway, my imaginary lover is the best lover I have ever had Following your theory, feeling sexually and/or lovingly rejected by men would be which has led me to have an imaginary lover. However, I have never felt specially rejected in that field. In fact, if I think of a character whom I have really feel rejected by during my childhood, that would be my mother, and I have never created an imaginary mother.

Ok. I see you have post again while i was reading your previous post. So I see everything is right.

Why do you think you are doing something wrong? Because of the roundoff error? The roundoff error is logical , because you don't use all the possible decimals.

It would be advisable you write here what you have done in numbers. For example, how much do yo think the molar mass of N2 is?

nec2009: Firstly, if you consider “yahoo” as an accurate scientific source, I am afraid you are a little lost. Secondly, I get your general idea of not liking current scientists, but I am confused about the details: On one hand, you complain about studies being too short; on the other hand you angrily say we will have to expect for 30 to 50 years to know about the EMF effects. Demonstrating something suppose taking a very long way. In the past, scientists stated facts more easily. However, nowadays, a greater security is required to assert something scientifically. This supposes repeated tests. Taking into account that the effects of an inducing-cancer agent take about 10 years to show and this is the time the mobile phones have been being widely used, it is now when we really are able to start to study if it is a relationship between the use of these ones and the increase in cancer.

It’s easy: you yourself told your girlfriend that you were going towards the east, so, she only had to phone to the Witch of the East for her causing the rain. I would advise you never to tell your girlfriend when you are going to the west direction: The With of the West is the evilest one and she was probably the one who caused that car like yours to be stroked by a light.

Mammal red blood cells lack nucleus, they don’t have DNA, so they can’t synthesize RNA.

Thank you, Sisyphus. I hadn’t though about getting it out this way, but it makes sense. So, I think 7% is too much for letting it to luck. I will try to study more units.

As I am not happy with my current job, I have decided to take a competitive examination to become a state high school teacher. For one of the test you have to pass, there are 75 units to study. The day of the exam, 5 balls with 5 different numbers will be extracted from a bag. Each number corresponds to a unit and you have to choose from these 5 which one you are going to develop. It is advised to prepare around 30 units to know almost for sure you will have studied one of the 5 between which you have to choose. However, I know several people who say they studied 30 or even more units for previous official announcements and they didn’t get any of those units chosen. So, I wanted to work out the probability that you get one of your chosen units if you study 30 of them, but, as my field is biology and not maths, I am not sure how to do it. It would be possible to know the number of ball combinations you can get from the 75 lessons: combinations of 75 elements taken from 5 in 5 = 17,259,390. But now, I don’t know how to guess how many of these options I would have covered by studying 30 units. Can you help me?

Sorry, I wanted to say SGLT, no SLT. I suppose in other places can call them SGLUT. All SGLT are sodium/glucose cotransporters. SGLT2 is in kidney and the last information I had about SGLT3 is that it hadn’t still be determined its location. As far as I know, there is not an active tranport of glucose in brain, but GLUt 3 is the transporter with most affinity for glucose, so, if there is little glucose concentration, the brain would take most of it. GLUT3 is also in big amounts in placenta, so the fetus gets his glucose, and in less concentration in heart, kidneys and liver.

There are two kinds of glucose transporters: GLUT (GLUT 1 to GLUT 13) and SLT (SLT 1 to SLT3). All GLUTs are passive transporters, while SLTs need energy to work: thelast ones are Na/glucose cotransporters.

Why bothering so much about religion?

HUMILIATION AND OTHER FEELINGS Very little is known about the operation of the nervous system, and when it is leaded to a subjective feeling as the humiliation, this knowledge can be considered virtually nil. I will only note that the humiliation and psychological “suffering” which subs are being subjected might lead ultimately to pleasure production by mechanisms very similar to the ones which lead from pain to pleasure. Actually, it seems that unpleasant feelings can produce true pain. At least for the case of envy, it has been observed that it is able to activate the own routes of pain. What about the rest of the feelings? Why pleasure is not gotten when a sub gets an accidental stamp? Nervous system is not formed by isolated groups of neurons being each one working independently from the others. On the contrary, all actions that take place in any area of the nervous system modify, in any way, the rest of the nervous system. Painful stimuli activate nociceptores. Those receptors are specialized in starting the route which can lead to the painful sensation. But this activation not necessary leads to a painful experience. The brain cortex elaborates on the information coming from the nociceptores to give a certain perception of the pain. This perception of the pain is influenced by former experiences and by the realm where the harmful stimulus is produced: As I have previously noted, dopamine causes a stimulus to be stored in our brain as pleasant and that makes to want to repeat that stimulus. This could lead to associate pleasure to some stimulus that formerly was generated joined to a pleasant one, although the first one should be an unpleasant feeling by itself. Pain, similarly to fear, would activate nociceptores; these, would lead to the activation of unconscious mechanisms, like endorphin release; but it would be the processing in the brain cortex what really generated certain painful experience. There is an area in the brain which seems to be involved in the perception of the pain. Patients who have had this part of the brain extracted experience pain as a sensation, but not as a very unpleasant one. Feelings are ultimately biochemical processes. And pain is the sensitive modality which is more influenced by emotional states and environmental circumstances. So, feelings (desire to make the dominant comfortable, to subdue to him; sexual attraction, love, attachment…) lead to generate brain routes which cross and modify pain and pleasure ones. Merged post follows: Consecutive posts mergedSLUMP Both dopamine and endorphin, pleasure chemical substances, have a short action period and they stop early being released. So, the pleasure lasts only for a limited time. On the other hand, dopamine causes prolactin release. Prolactin is a hormone which decreases sex desire, as well as dopamine and endorphin release. A big endorphin unloading has been produced; a big part of the reserves of these hormones in the organism have been emptied. It can take days to replace them. Besides, endorphin receptors may have hidden due to the high number of endorphin which has joined them. In his way, the remaining low number of endorphins has a remaining low number of receptors to join: it is difficult for them to do their relaxing and pleasurable function. Because of that, subs can feel bad after a session: we will have decreased the capability of balancing any little unpleasant situation. Any help will be welcome to compensate this, and the after-care is a very good help, causing the release of endorphins although the deposits are low. Another important help is oxytocin. Oxytocin is released in response to both arousal and pain. In contrast to endorphins and dopamine, has a longer period of action. It is directly related to love and attachment and can compensate the slump of endorphins and dopamine. These facts about oxytocin could explain some of the advantages of a long term relationship. It seems that in males much of the functions which the oxytocin has in females would be substituted by the vasopressin. OTHER NEUROTRANSMITTERS AND HORMONES So far, I have only spoken about a few neurotransmitters and hormones (adrenalin, dopamine, endorphins, prolactin, oxytocin and vasopressin). But that it’s a simplification of what really happens in our body in process such as pain. Actually what happens is a chain: Releasing of a chemical substance gives acts in a cell, making the last to release another chemical substance and so on. Besides, other neurotransmitters greatly influence the process we have treated. For instance, serotonin influences pain, orgasm, mood… In fact, serotonin has such a wide range of actions that it is difficult to separate its influence in a concrete action. That is the reason I have not previously mentioned the serotonin in this article; it’s too complex, so, I will gig into it more deeply in other occasion. But serotonin might have a great influence in the pleasure of submission and even more in the pleasure of domination. I can look very egocentric, because I have only spoken in this article about submission pleasure, and not about the domination one. But it is easier when you research about the cause of feelings you really know. For other article, I expect to be more focused in the dominant, as well as trying to clarify some of my doubts and in this way, being able to write an article with more answers. References Adeniyi et al. ”Yohimbine in the treatment of orgasmic dysfunction”. Asian J Androl, 2007; 9 (3): 403–407 Bancroft. “The endocrinology of sexual arousal”. Journal of endocrinology, 2005;186:411-427 Bressan et al. “The role of dopamine in reward and pleasure behaviour--review of data from preclinical research”. Acta Psychiatr Scand Suppl, 2005;(427):14-21 Burgdorf et al. “The neurobiology of positive emotions “. Neurosci Biobehav Rev, 2006;30(2):173-87 Do et al. “Evaluations of pleasurable experiences: the peak-end rule”. Psy chon Bull, 2008 Feb;15(1):96-8. Jabbi et al. “A Common Anterior Insula Representation of Disgust Observation, Experience and Imagination Shows Divergent Functional Connectivity Pathways”. PLoS ONE, 2008; 3(8): e2939 Kandel et al. Principios de Neurociencia. Macgraw-Hill. Interamericana, 2004 López-Ávila et al. “El papel de los receptores dopaminérgicos D1 y D2 en la corteza insular en un modelo de dolor neuropático”. XXVI Congreeso Nacional de Investigacdión Biomédica. Méjico 2007 Purves et al. “Neurociencia”. Panamericana, 2004 Sch et al. “The neurobiology of pleasure, reward processes, addiction and their health implications”. Neuro Endocrinol Lett, 2004 Aug;25(4):235-51 Stefano et al. “Anticipatory Stress Response: A significant commonality in stress, relaxation, pleasure and love responses”. Med Sci Monit, 2008; 14(2): RA17-21 Takahashi et al . “When your gain is my pain and your pain is my gain: neural correlates of envy and schadenfreude”. Science, 2009, Feb 13 http://www.sfn.org/skins/main/pdf/brss/

I suppose you mean you put the sample in a hot bath, not that you added water in the container of the sample, but correct me if I am wrong. Do you know the temperature of that "hot water"? If you don't know the exact temperature, could you touch the water without burning yourself?

Yes, I had though about the triangles and it supposes only a little less of work than using the formula of the ellipse I have used. And I though the result was more exact by considering the ellipse. However, I now read on the page I have previously linked that the simplest ellipse equation has little exactitude when one of the radius is more than three times bigger than the other. So, perhaps it is more exact to use the approximation of triangles when r > 3s and when r < s/3? I don’t know. In any case, I think it would be better to continue using the formula of ellipse when s/3 < r <3s If I haven’t had any mistake in the calculus, CD would be 1.57 times bigger if you calculate it by the approximation of triangles than if you calculate it by the formula of ellipse.

You can’t calculate exactly the perimeter of a ellipse, but I have used this approximation: p= 2*pi*square root of[(r^2+s^2)/2] where p is perimeter and r and s the radii of the ellipse. There is a more exact approximation, but I think is not possible here to work out CD respect to AB (r respect to s). I have found it here (it's the second one, the first one is the one I had used): http://www.mathsisfun.com/geometry/ellipse-perimeter.html In that same web there are formulas for an exact solution, but they are an addition of infinite terms, so, in the practice, you never get the exact solution. The more term you add, the more exact approximation you get. What I don’t know is if those late formulas could be integrated and so you could work out the derivate of CD respect to AB. But I haven’t done an integral or derivate in the last 20 years, I don’t remember almost anything about them. So, it is only an idea I don’t know if it is possible.

I am not a physics or mathematics major, but you can solve this problem with basic knowledge. You only have to visualize it. 1-You say you have problems with 2 and 3. So, I suppose you don’t have problems with 1 and you have been able to know AB respect to theta. 2-The string forms have half an ellipse. You have to use the simpler formula for the ellipse because with a more complex one, I don’t see how to work out the value of CD respect to AB. I realize I made a mistake: CD wouldn’t be a diameter, but a radius. Substituting in the formula of the ellipse 2*square root of 2=2pi*square root of {[(AB/2)^2 +CD^2]/2} You can work out the value of CD respect AB from here. 3- You have AB respect to theta and CD respect to AB. You only have to substitute.

1- Firstly, you can use the Sine Theorem to relate AB to theta. So, you would have the equation of AB in function of theta. 2- You know the length of the string, which is constant, square root of 2. The string would be all the time half an ellipse, being one diameter AB and the other one CD. You can get an equation of CB in function of AB. 3- Now, you get together 1 and 2 for getting how much CD is depending on theta.