CharonY

Citation needed. Also, how did we survive until now and what types of antibiotics do all the other mammals use?

A couple of the questions are unclear to me. What does shopping mean, for instance? I would assume that pretty much everyone has to go grocery shopping, unless you are able to grow food yourself. With regards to dating, does going out with one's significant other count? Do you mean movies with or about scientists ?

It is still a rather obvious hint I will give you one answer, your assumption is wrong. It is not mouse. RNA polymerase does not initiate transcription (other enzymes are involved initiation), but it does the actual transcription. According to the opening question, if you look at the enzymes listed, do you see something missing?

DNA-dependent RNA polymerase

Well, quick answers generally do not help in understanding the subject as evidenced here (you are still missing crucial elements that you need to know to derive the answer), but you are certainly welcome.

Think more carefully, especially in terms of what what is present in the test tube. What do you need from to go from DNA to mRNA? And again, check what is already there...

Well from your answer I gather that you are not quite familiar with the whole process of protein biosynthesis. You have to thing your way through from DNA to protein and see where the bits and pieces come together. Hint: read up transcription. Thinking in rough terms such as instructions obscure the mechanisms behind it and won't allow you to understand the process.

Well, sounds like homework, so let me ask you this: if you have a polypeptide, how would you know of which origin it is? Based on that, what is the proximate element that determines it? How far is DNA away from that point and what is needed for your answer to be true?

While it is understandable that they may not like that US-agencies are using their data, the European intelligence services also do similar things. At the very least foreign calls made in Germany are (officially since 1994) routinely screened and were sometimes freely shared with the police. Though after a court ruling they were only allowed to do so if there was suspicion of criminal intent. While the scope is limited to calls into foreign countries, i would not be surprised if they also got more. in addition, many intelligence agencies in Europe still have strong ties to the US agencies (cold war and everything..), so I am kind of inclined to believe that most parties already know about it and that this is more a political move.

Several of the pockets appear to be damaged (have to be careful when pulling the comb out and do not poke the gel when you load it), Considering the quality of the gels I would also renew the buffer and make doubly sure that the agarose was completely dissolved before pouring.

Unfortunately the translation from genetic information to phenotype is not quite as simple and I would like to start off that I am only speculating here, as I have no expertise knowledge on this specific subject. But in principle it depends a lot on the type of deletion and how the system is regulated. For example, a single copy does not have to result in reduced biochemical activity as it could be compensated by higher expression. What does happen in cases where a copy is silenced or truncated (depends also a lot on where the deletion is) is that regulation could be disrupted. Thus the phenotype could be much more complex than a reduction in cholin transport efficiency, for example. And even if that was the case it does not necessarily mean that nutrient supplement could remedy it as the whole regulation of choline metabolism/conversion/signaling is quite complex. I would ask a specialist in the medical field whether there are things to improve brain health as the simple reasoning is not likely accurate enough to provide good intervention strategies.

The precise procedure should be indicated in the paper. One assay I am familiar with amyloid beta deposits (if that is what you are referring to) involves the extraction in organic solvent and subsequent Western or MS identification/quantification. Histological assays are generally more involved and are more dependent on the expertise of the experimenter.

Short answer: it would not work. The specific enzymes are relatively finely tuned towards the respective metal they are incorporating. The copper in hemocyanin cannot be easily replaced with iron and the same goes for hemoglobin and copper. The closest in terms of ion radius to iron would be manganese and it has been shown that in vitro some ferro-enzymes to incorporate Mn and it also sometimes happen in vitro in prokaryotic cell cultures. Certain enzyemes still exhibit activity, but usually at quite a low rate (and a certain amount of iron is still necessary for survival). There are certain bacteria (to date only to genera are known to my knowledge) that can live without iron, apparently by using manganese, but they are specialists in this regard.

As I said, it depends highly on the nutritional situation. Tap water varies highly, but rat studies have shown that feeding water that has less than 75 mg total dissolved solids electrolyte for a longer time apparently disrupts mineral homeostasis (see Schumann et al. Vet and Hum Tox 1993) . This was also the case despite being on a otherwise sufficient diet and similar effects were observed in humans (see e.g. Med Mo Pharm1993; 16: 146., in German, unfortunately, but I believe there was a position paper of the WHO about this subject). The point is not that it provides insufficient nutrients, but rather that with a (barely) sufficient diet and/or situations where electrolyte loss is already occuring high amount of low-mineral water can push people towards deficiency and disrupt mineral homeostasis. The negative consequences are usually only temporary and thus rarely lead to pronounced health effects, though (I cannot recall whether there were ever studies longer than a year on this matter). Finally, it should be noted that for certain minerals drinking water could be actually quite significant source for some populations as some studies indicate (Rubenowitz et al. Scand J Clin Lab Invest. 1998; Galan et al Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 102 (11) (2002), pp. 1658–1662). Acute effects such as water intoxication is usually only found after excessive fluid consumption after heavy exercise. In this case very low TDS water did not do much of a difference as compared to low-med TDS water. I.e. higher salt intake becomes necessary. As usual, when it comes to dietary concerns ymmv.

Acidic extraction of histones is mostly done to precipitate proteins and components other than histones as they are quite soluble under low pH (often followed by a TCA precipitation). I.e. it is used to enrich histones. Lysis is independent of it and depends largely of the type of cells (though sonication and, as mentioned, mechanic lysis are among the most universal principles). There are quite a few protocols out there fore nuclear proteins and I believe high-salt extraction has also been employed for histones successfully (see von Holt et al. Methods Enzymol 1989)

Well purified water is known to induce diuresis and electrolyte loss. Of course during normal nutritional situations the effects should be pretty low to non-existent. But if you are in situation where electrolyte loss is occurring (such as during heavy sweating), it could become an issue.

Analysis of ion channels on single neurons is routinely carried out using patch-clamp techniques. The resolution with modern equipment allows you to isolate areas of roughly a single ion channel. These generally require the isolation of tissues or individual cells, as far as I know.

Distilled water has barely any taste at all, most of the things you actually taste are stuff that got into the water, depending on source and storage of water. That being said, highly purified water is not really that healthy as you may lose minerals. But unless it is contaminated with something there is no good reason why water should make you feel sick, especially as strong reaction as you described. More likely is that you got something else and you associate it with water consumption, for example.

Depends on what you would classify as nanotech but the use of nanomaterials in all kinds of household goods including personal care products is quite widespread already.

Technically one would probably refer to the interaction we have with bacteria as mutualism rather than true symbiosis, though there is no strict distinction. But obviously our bacterial flora influences us to a large extent during non pathogenic interaction. In addition ot effects on the digestive syste, they modulate our immune response or change their respective niches that in turn affects the flora we have. As such they provide us with a passive defense against colonization of novel bacteria that may be infectious by virtue of outcompeting newcomers and so on.

As CaptainPanic already explained killing off a suitable host is usually not a very good long-term strategy. The core of evolution is successful proliferation, not the extinction of other species.

Giving a decent lecture requires to know the audience. Obviously if talking to laymen you would try to convey it in a very simplified way and relate via examples that the audience may be familiar with. Obviously the same would be frowned upon if delivering to an expert panel. In most cases it is a bit better to deliver more on the simplified side as chances are higher that people are not familiar with the specifics of your work. The trick here is to figure out what the core message of your talk is and focus to highlight that rather than getting lost in data, or showing all the work that has been done (this is especially relevant for students) etc. The very same applies to writing a compelling abstract.

Peer-Reviewing paper: Read Abstract -> get interested -> read intro -> shake head in disbelief due to lack in background knowledge-> make coffee -> read discussion -> scratch head in confusion -> check methods ->laugh hard and spill coffee over paper -> read results to pinpoint what went wrong -> write scathing review.

i assume that it would depend quite a lot on how precise you can do it. In my case I was looking at protein expression responses and the results were quite consistent. However I either diluted them into the (bought) media bottle directly and used it for all experiments in one go (although bottle-to bottle variation was not too bad either), for smaller volumes I used either volumetric flasks if I need volume percentages. The controls were also poured into clean flasks, but without addition (to make sure that there was nothing in the glass affecting the results). For w/v percentages I weighed the medium in.

I do not have the definite answer, but in most of these cases we either have a massive initial dilution step to avoid precipitation and/or dilute it directly into large volumes (e.g. the cultivation medium itself).