CharonY

Wait, what when did I join it. Have to post to check. Edit: wait what? 2004?

Well, it is more accurate to state that resistance spread faster throughout a population, rather than develop it. The "development" part, i.e. the rise of enzymes that have beta-lactamase activities occurs more or less independently of the presence of antibiotics (this is not entirely accurate as stress can lead to error-prone DNA repair, which in turn increases mutation rates). Mechanistically, single bacteria develop or acquire resistance in different ways that can range form mutations in the target site of antibiotics (so that they cannot interact anymore) up to acquiring proteins that either inactivate the antibiotics or reduce the accumulation of it. In the latter case the efficiency of the enzymes can then increase over time by precisely the same mechanism as its initial spread. I.e. those with a low level resistant will mutate, and if there are variant that are more resistant, they will spread, outcompeting the less resistant ones. Antibiotics essentially just add a strong selective pressure to the population.

It is not that bacteria develop resistances upon encountering antibiotics. This is a common misconception. What happens is that in any large bacterial population you will find a few that have that resistance due to random mutations. Without antibiotics their amount will be relatively low. However, once you add antibiotics to the mix you kill off those that do not have the resistance. Thus, allowing the resistant ones to spread. The result is that the number of resistant strains spread, rather that they suddenly develop the resistance. Viral infections are a different thing, you do not take antibiotics against viruses.

There are certain pathways that are elevated during stress (T2, for instance, IIRC). Certain autoimmune diseases are triggered during stress (most likely) because of that. So different stimuli may affect different immune pathways differently. There, three differents in a row.

Wait what? The "Women's right to know act" actually passed? When I heard about it, I thought it was just rhetorics to galvanize the religious zealots, but what the heck?

Usually only with experience. If you work on a field and with a specific perspective, certain works will crystallize out to be the important ones. Another indicator are citation rates, though they generally do increase with the age of the papers (and then often decline again, when they are outdated).

I agree with swansont. In academia and pure research areas we have basically a surplus on scientists (i.e. less positions than graduates). However, the base level of scientific education, and with that I do not mean the memorization of science-related info, but things problem solving skills, critical thinking and being educatable (i.e. desire to learn new things and challenge own preconceptions), is low.

Most commercially columns labelled as desalting columns are actually MWCO filters. There are also MWCOs of lower than 2 kDa around. The C18 columns (which you probably are thinking of) are usually sold as spin or SPE columns (or you could use ZipTips if you only need low sample volumes). Since it appears you are doing a preparative separation you may think of a method that would already get rid of byproducts that you do not need and use this step as a prefractionation, already.

There are several ways. One could dialyse, for instance, but I prefer to use a MWCO filter and just wash it. Depends a bit on the properties of the protein, how much you can afford to lose etc.

The actual implementation especially with respect to theory will vary a lot from course to course (or rather, depends on the style of those organizing it). However, the problem of following rote procedures is not limited to wet lab classes, of course. I tend to think that lab work is near useless in the first or so semester, as there is usually not enough time to provide sufficient background and have them do experiments (while not blowing themselves up or setting themselves on fire). The chemistry classes that I took during undergrad studies were mostly analytical in nature, so at least there was some time of goal you tried to achieve (e.g. quantifying or identifying a substance). At the beginning it was kind of rote, as you had to be introduced to the techniques, but towards the end you get an unknown substance and you could unleash everything you learned. I try to set up my classes in a similar way. Equip them with knowledge/technique and then give a riddle to solve. Works really well for advanced and grad students, not so much for freshmen (they complain that it is too hard and too much work).

The binding on cation resins is usually dependent on the amino group. Check out how Tris looks like and I think you should figure it out.

Well, most non-open source journals also charge. Some have a limited number of pages for free, or sometimes also free color images. But from my publications (none of which were open source) I only did not have top pay for two. One was an invited review and another was within the aforementioned page limits. Also some journals, including some Elsevier Journals, allow you to make your paper open source, for a fee. However many journals (I am not sure about Elsevier, though, I think they removed the possibility) allow to deposit a non-set copy in Pubmed central, especially as NIH or NSF funded projects were required to publish in publicly available depositories. Journals from societies are not necessarily cheaper. However, if you cannot pay, they may waive the publication fee.

Change your doctor.

Like wearing a suit for an interview. Or pants.

Biology-related books from the 60s are very fascinating, I am sure.

Right, now how fast are Ca2+ channels relative to the Na+ ones?

Who said automatically? We are talking of transmission of abilities over generations.

It is called teaching/learning and when it survives several generation it is sometimes referred to as tradition. It is not limited to apes, but has also been shown in e.g. crows. My point was that there are non-genetic factors that can confound analyses.

Interesting. Sounds pretty conclusive that it is functional as a motif. I wonder if some different (regulatory) effects may play a role in the native host somehow. Did you happen to quantify the expression of the protein in the native vs the heterlogous expression?

That is one difference and the other is the consequence of relying on Ca2+ to depolarize. What is the kinetics of Ca2+ vs Na+ influx on AP? So if you drew a typical cardiac AP compare it to SA, what differences would you expect? It may be easier if you think about the different phases and where the differences of SA node cells are.

Tapeworm thrive in the digestive tracts, so ingestion is necessary. Also, they are not specific to fleas. Other arthropods are more often cited as hosts. I hope you mean egg-infected feces of rats (rather than egg-laying rats). Yes, we can. Thus avoid eating rat feces as much as possible.

Ok, if you compare the resting potential of these cell types, what is the typical difference between those two? Think of automaticity.

A few points, the first sentence is inaccurate as imatfaal pointed out (as well as the other points). A more general issue is whether the introduction actually leads into whatever you are talking about. E.g. definition of biodiversity, relevance of biodiversity or whatever. Right now it does not really lead anywhere.

K, where precisely do you have problems with it?